Cinnamomum verum (true cinnamon) leaf essential oil as an effective therapeutic alternative against oral and non-oral biofilm infections: A brief review.
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dez 1, 2020
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Resumo
Medicinal plants play a major role as an alternative therapeutic agents for various disease conditions including cardiac and hepatic diseases, microbial infections and non-communicable disease such as diabetes mellitus. With the excessive use of synthetic antimicrobial drugs, microorganisms become more virulent and resistant to available antimicrobial therapeutic agents. Further, the majority (around 60%-80%) of human microbial infections are biofilm associated infections and various resistance mechanisms of biofilms make it more difficult to eradicate or treat biofilms using available antimicrobial therapeutics. Biofilm structure acts as a physical barrier and prevent penetration of antimicrobial agents towards the biofilm core. Currently, scientists pay their attention to invent novel effective antimicrobial agents with less side effects for these biofilm infections. Phytochemicals have identified as a potential alternative antimicrobial strategy in biofilm control and eradication. Cinnamomum verum is a native Sri Lankan medicinal plant that has been widely used as a culinary spice, exhibits many medicinal benefits especially activity against microbial infectious diseases. Essential oils extracted from leaf and bark of C. verum have been used as a safe and effective antimicrobial agents against various infections for centuries. This review analyses the available scientific literature evidences on appositeness of true cinnamon leaf essential oil as an alternative antimicrobial strategy to control microbial biofilm infections with medical importance.
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1.
Wijesinghe GK, Rossini de Oliveira T, Camila Maia F, Busato de Feiria S, Joia F, Priscila Barbosa J, Cláudia Boni G, Höfling JF. Cinnamomum verum (true cinnamon) leaf essential oil as an effective therapeutic alternative against oral and non-oral biofilm infections: A brief review. Braz. J. Nat. Sci [Internet]. 1º de dezembro de 2020 [citado 21º de novembro de 2024];3(3):556. Disponível em: https://bjns.com.br/index.php/BJNS/article/view/119
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Artigo de revisão em fluxo contínuo
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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Referências
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5. Kempker RR, Kipiani M, Mirtskhulava V, Tukvadze N, Magee MJ, Blumberg HM. Acquired drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and poor outcomes among patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2015; 21: 992–1001. DOI: 10.3201/eid2106.141873
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7. Kontoyiannis, DP, & Lewis, RE. Antifungal drug resistance of pathogenic fungi. The Lancet, 2002; 359(9312): 1135–44.
8. Al-Mariri A, Safi M. The antibacterial activity of selected Labiatae (Lamiaceae) essencial oil against Brucella melitensis. Iran J Med Sci, 2013; 38(1): 44-50. PMID: 23645957
9. Oliveira T, Teixeira A, Barbosa J, Busato de Feiria S, Boni G, Maia F, et al. Melaleuca spp. essential oil and its medical applicability. A Brief Review. bjns. 2020; 3(1):249. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31415/bjns.v3i1.89
10. Karen W. Martin, Edzard Ernst, Herbal medicines for treatment of bacterial infections: a review of controlled clinical trials, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2003; 51(2): 241–6. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkg087
11. Chen P, Sun J, Ford P. Differentiation of the four major species of cinnamons (C. burmannii, C. verum, C. cassia, and C. loureiroi) using a flow injection mass spectrometric (FIMS) fingerprinting method. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014; 62 (12): 2516–21. DOI: 10.1021/jf405580c
12. Hamidpour R, Hamidpour M, Hamidpour S, Shahlari M. Cinnamon from the selection of traditional applications to its novel effects on the inhibition of angiogenesis in cancer cells and prevention of Alzheimer’s disease, and a series of functions such as antioxidant, anticholesterol, antidiabetes, antibacterial, antifungal, nematicidal, acaracidal, and repellent activities. J. Trad. Complement. Med. 2015; 5(2): 66–70. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2014.11.008
13. Kuete V, Krusche B, Youns M, Voukeng I, Fankam AG, Tankeo S, et al. Cytotoxicity of some Cameroonian spices and selected medicinal plant extracts. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011; 134 (3): 803–12. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.035
14. Nkanwen E, Awouafack M, Bankeu J, Wabo HK, Mustafa SAA, Ali MS, et al. Constituents from the stem bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Welw. (Lauraceae) and their inhibitory activity toward Plasmodium falciparum enoyl-ACP reductase enzyme. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2013; 7 (4): 296–301.
15. Shen Q, Chen F, Luo J. Comparison studies on chemical constituents of essential oil from ramulus cinnamomi and cortex cinnamomi by GC-MS. Zhong Yao Cai. 2002; 25: 257-8. PMID: 12583177
16. Singh G, Maurya S, deLampasona MP, Catalan CAN. A comparison of chemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial studies of cinnamon leaf and bark volatile oils, oleoresins and their constituents. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2007; 45(9): 1650–61. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.02.031
17. Paranagama PA, Wimalasena S, Jayatilake GS, Jayawardena AL, Senanayake UM, Mubarak AM: A comparison of essential oil constituents of bark, leaf root and fruit of cinnamon (cinnamomum zeylanicum Blum), grown in Sri Lanka. J Natl Sci Found Sri. 2010, 29: 147-153. DOI: 10.4038/jnsfsr.v29i3-4.2613
18. Wijesinghe GK, Maia FC, de Oliveira TR, de Feiria SNB, Joia F, Barbosa JP et al. Effect of Cinnamomum verum leaf essential oil on virulence factors of Candida species and determination of the in-vivo toxicity with Galleria mellonella model. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 2020; 115: e200349. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/0074-02760200349
19. Marsh P, Martin MV. Microbiologia oral. 4a. Santos: Santos; 2005. 192.
20. Jenkinson HF, Lamont RJ. Oral Microbial Communities in Sickness and in Health. Trends Microbiol. 2005; 13: 589–95. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2005.09.006
21. Ghannoum MA, Jurevic RJ, Mukherjee PK, Cui F, Sikaroodi M, Naqvi A, et al. Characterization of the Oral Fungal Microbiome (Mycobiome) in Healthy Individuals. PLoS Pathog. 2010; 6(1): 1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000713
22. Kreth J, Merritt J, Shi W, Qi F. Competition and Coexistence between Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguinis in the Dental Biofilm. J. Bacteriol. 2005; 187(21): 7193-203. DOI: 10.1128/JB.187.21.7193-7203.2005
23. Wijesinghe GK, Dilhari A, Gayani B, Kottegoda N, Samaranayake L, Weerasekera M. Influence of Laboratory Culture Media on in vitro Growth, Adhesion, and Biofilm Formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Med Princ Pract. 2019; 28: 28–35. DOI: 10.1159/000494757
24. Maia F, Wijesinghe G, Oliveira T, Barbosa J, Busato de Feiria S, Boni G, et al. Phyllanthus niruri L. (stone-breaker) as an alternative of anti-human diseases, antimicrobial agent, and its applicability to combat resistant microrganisms. A Brief Review. bjns. 2020; 3(2):342. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31415/bjns.v3i2.99
25. Tan CH, Kelvin Lee KW, Burmølle M, Kjelleberg S, Rice SA, Lee KWK, et al. All together now: experimental multispecies biofilm model systems. Environ Microbiol. 2016; 13: 385–92. DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13594
26. Khatoon Z, McTiernan CD, Suuronen EJ, Mah TF, Alarcon EI. Bacterial biofilm formation on implantable devices and approaches to its treatment and prevention. Heliyon. 2018; 4(12):e01067.
27. Crouzet M, Le Senechal C, Brözel VS, Costaglioli P, Barthe C, Bonneu M, et al. Exploring early steps in biofilm formation: set-up of an experimental system for molecular studies. BMC Microbiol. 2014; 14: 253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-014-0253-z
28. Kolenbrander PE, Palmer Jr RJ, Periasamy S, Jakubovics NS. Oral multispecies biofilm development and the key role of cell–cell distance. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2010; 8: 471-80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2381
29. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS, Egland PG, Foster JS, Palmer RJJ. Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2002; 66(3): 486-505. DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.66.3.486-505.2002
30. Weerasekera MM, Jayarathna TA, Wijesinghe GK, Gunasekara CP, Fernando N, Kottegoda N, et al. The Effect of Nutritive and Non-Nutritive Sweeteners on the Growth, Adhesion, and Biofilm Formation of Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis. Med Princ Pract. 2017; 26: 554–60. DOI: 10.1159/000484718
31. Jamal M, Ahmad W, Andleeb S, Jalil F, Imran M, Nawaz MA, et al. Bacterial biofilm and associated infections. Journal of the Chinese Medical Association. 2018; 81(1): 7–11.
32. Drenkard E. Antimicrobial resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Microbes Infect. 2003; 5: 1213–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2003.08.009
33. Al‐Fattani MA, Douglas LJ. Biofilm matrix of Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis: chemical composition and role in drug resistance. J Med Microbiol. 2006; 55: 999–1008.
34. Pierce CG, Uppuluri P, Tristan AR, Wormley FL, Mowat E, Ramage G, et al. A simple and reproducible 96 well plate-based method for the formation of fungal biofilms and its application to antifungal susceptibility testing. Nat Protoc. 2008; 3(9): 1494–500. DOI: 10.1038/nport.2008.141
35. Soukos NS, Goodson JM. Photodynamic therapy in the control of oral biofilms. Periodontology 2000. 2011; 55: 143–66.
36. Khan SMA, Malik A, Ahmad I. Anti-candidal activity of essential oils alone and in combination with amphotericin B or fluconazole against multi-drug resistant isolates of Candida albicans. Medical Mycology. 2012; 50: 33–42. DOI: 10.3109/13693786.2011.582890
37. Nir Y, Potasman I, Stermer E, Tabak M, Neeman I. Controlled trial of the effect of cinnamon extract on Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter. 2000; 5: 94–7.
38. Azzouz MA, Bullerman LB. Comparative antimycotic effects of selected herbs, spices, plant components and commercial antifungal agents. Journal of Food Protection. 1982; 45: 1298 – 1301. DOI: 10.4315/0362-028X-45.14.1298
39. Suksrikarm B, 1987. Herb and Spice. Amorn Printing, Thailand.
40. Zainal-Abidin Z, Mohd-Said S, Abdul Majid FA, Majid A, Mustapha WAW, Jantan I. Anti-Bacterial Activity of Cinnamon Oil on Oral Pathogens. The Open Conference Proceedings Journal. 2013; 42(4): 12-16.
41. Wiwattanarattanabut K, Choonharuangdej S, Srithavaj T. In vitro anti-cariogenic plaque effects of essential oils extracted from culinary herbs. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 2017; 11: 30–35.
42. Filoche SK, Soma K, Sissons CH. Antimicrobial effects of essential oils in combination with chlorhexidine digluconate. Oral Microbiology and Immunology. 2005; 20(4): 221–5. DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-302X.2005.00216.x
43. Moon SE, Kim HY, Cha JD. Synergistic effect between clove oil and its major compounds and antibiotics against oral bacteria. Arch Oral Biol. 2011; 56:907–16.
44. Schmidt E, Jirovetz L, Wlcek K, Buchbauer G, Gochev V, Girova T, et al. Antifungal Activity of Eugenol and Various Eugenol-Containing Essential Oils against 38 Clinical Isolates of Candida albicans. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants. 2007; 10(5), 421–429. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2007.10643575
45. Marchese A, Barbieri R, Coppo E, Orhan IE, Daglia M, Nabavi SF, et al. Antimicrobial activity of eugenol and essential oils containing eugenol: A mechanistic viewpoint. Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 2017; 43(6), 668–689. DOI: 10.1080/1040841X.2017.1295225
46. Ong KS, Cheow YL, Lee SM. The role of reactive oxygen species in the antimicrobial activity of pyochelin. J Adv Res. 2017; 8(4):393-398. DOI:10.1016/j.jare.2017.05.007
47. Unlu M, Ergene E, Unlu GV, Zeytinoglu HS, Vural N. Composition, antimicrobial activity and in vitro cytotoxicity of essential oil from Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (Lauraceae). Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2010; 48(11): 3274–80. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.09.001
48. Singh R, Koppikar SJ, Paul P, Gilda S, Paradkar AR, Ghanekar RK. Comparative analysis of cytotoxic effect of aqueous cinnamon extract from Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark with commercial cinnamaldehyde on various cell lines. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2009; 47(12): 1174–9.
49. El-Meleigy MA, Ahmed ME, Arafa RA, Ebrahim NA, El-Kholany EE. Cytotoxicity Of Four Essential Oils On Some Human And Bacterial Cells. Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation. 2010; 5(2): 143-59.
50. Assadollahi V, Parivar K, Roudbari NH, Khalatbary AR, Motamedi M, Ezatpour B, et al. The effect of aqueous cinnamon extract on the apoptotic process in acute myeloid leukemia HL-60 cells. Adv Biomed Res. 2. 2013; 25. DOI: 10.4103/2277-9175.108001
2. Van Hal SJ, Fowler VG. Is it time to replace vancomycin in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections? Clin. Pract. 2013; 56: 1779–88. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cit178
3. Nathwani D, Raman G, Sulham K, Gavaghan M, Menon V. Clinical and economic consequences of hospital-acquired resistant and multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control. 2014. DOI: 10.1186/2047-2994-3-32
4. Kim L, McGee L, Tomczyk S, Beall B. Biological and epidemiological features of antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in pre- and post-conjugate vaccine eras: A United States perspective. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2016; 29: 525–52. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00058-15
5. Kempker RR, Kipiani M, Mirtskhulava V, Tukvadze N, Magee MJ, Blumberg HM. Acquired drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and poor outcomes among patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2015; 21: 992–1001. DOI: 10.3201/eid2106.141873
6. Krüger A, Lucchesi PM, Sanso AM, Etcheverría AI, Bustamante AV, Burgán J, et al. Genetic characterization of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O26:H11 strains isolated from animal, food, and clinical samples. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2015. DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2015.00074
7. Kontoyiannis, DP, & Lewis, RE. Antifungal drug resistance of pathogenic fungi. The Lancet, 2002; 359(9312): 1135–44.
8. Al-Mariri A, Safi M. The antibacterial activity of selected Labiatae (Lamiaceae) essencial oil against Brucella melitensis. Iran J Med Sci, 2013; 38(1): 44-50. PMID: 23645957
9. Oliveira T, Teixeira A, Barbosa J, Busato de Feiria S, Boni G, Maia F, et al. Melaleuca spp. essential oil and its medical applicability. A Brief Review. bjns. 2020; 3(1):249. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31415/bjns.v3i1.89
10. Karen W. Martin, Edzard Ernst, Herbal medicines for treatment of bacterial infections: a review of controlled clinical trials, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2003; 51(2): 241–6. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkg087
11. Chen P, Sun J, Ford P. Differentiation of the four major species of cinnamons (C. burmannii, C. verum, C. cassia, and C. loureiroi) using a flow injection mass spectrometric (FIMS) fingerprinting method. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014; 62 (12): 2516–21. DOI: 10.1021/jf405580c
12. Hamidpour R, Hamidpour M, Hamidpour S, Shahlari M. Cinnamon from the selection of traditional applications to its novel effects on the inhibition of angiogenesis in cancer cells and prevention of Alzheimer’s disease, and a series of functions such as antioxidant, anticholesterol, antidiabetes, antibacterial, antifungal, nematicidal, acaracidal, and repellent activities. J. Trad. Complement. Med. 2015; 5(2): 66–70. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2014.11.008
13. Kuete V, Krusche B, Youns M, Voukeng I, Fankam AG, Tankeo S, et al. Cytotoxicity of some Cameroonian spices and selected medicinal plant extracts. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011; 134 (3): 803–12. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.035
14. Nkanwen E, Awouafack M, Bankeu J, Wabo HK, Mustafa SAA, Ali MS, et al. Constituents from the stem bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Welw. (Lauraceae) and their inhibitory activity toward Plasmodium falciparum enoyl-ACP reductase enzyme. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2013; 7 (4): 296–301.
15. Shen Q, Chen F, Luo J. Comparison studies on chemical constituents of essential oil from ramulus cinnamomi and cortex cinnamomi by GC-MS. Zhong Yao Cai. 2002; 25: 257-8. PMID: 12583177
16. Singh G, Maurya S, deLampasona MP, Catalan CAN. A comparison of chemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial studies of cinnamon leaf and bark volatile oils, oleoresins and their constituents. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2007; 45(9): 1650–61. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.02.031
17. Paranagama PA, Wimalasena S, Jayatilake GS, Jayawardena AL, Senanayake UM, Mubarak AM: A comparison of essential oil constituents of bark, leaf root and fruit of cinnamon (cinnamomum zeylanicum Blum), grown in Sri Lanka. J Natl Sci Found Sri. 2010, 29: 147-153. DOI: 10.4038/jnsfsr.v29i3-4.2613
18. Wijesinghe GK, Maia FC, de Oliveira TR, de Feiria SNB, Joia F, Barbosa JP et al. Effect of Cinnamomum verum leaf essential oil on virulence factors of Candida species and determination of the in-vivo toxicity with Galleria mellonella model. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 2020; 115: e200349. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/0074-02760200349
19. Marsh P, Martin MV. Microbiologia oral. 4a. Santos: Santos; 2005. 192.
20. Jenkinson HF, Lamont RJ. Oral Microbial Communities in Sickness and in Health. Trends Microbiol. 2005; 13: 589–95. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2005.09.006
21. Ghannoum MA, Jurevic RJ, Mukherjee PK, Cui F, Sikaroodi M, Naqvi A, et al. Characterization of the Oral Fungal Microbiome (Mycobiome) in Healthy Individuals. PLoS Pathog. 2010; 6(1): 1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000713
22. Kreth J, Merritt J, Shi W, Qi F. Competition and Coexistence between Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguinis in the Dental Biofilm. J. Bacteriol. 2005; 187(21): 7193-203. DOI: 10.1128/JB.187.21.7193-7203.2005
23. Wijesinghe GK, Dilhari A, Gayani B, Kottegoda N, Samaranayake L, Weerasekera M. Influence of Laboratory Culture Media on in vitro Growth, Adhesion, and Biofilm Formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Med Princ Pract. 2019; 28: 28–35. DOI: 10.1159/000494757
24. Maia F, Wijesinghe G, Oliveira T, Barbosa J, Busato de Feiria S, Boni G, et al. Phyllanthus niruri L. (stone-breaker) as an alternative of anti-human diseases, antimicrobial agent, and its applicability to combat resistant microrganisms. A Brief Review. bjns. 2020; 3(2):342. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31415/bjns.v3i2.99
25. Tan CH, Kelvin Lee KW, Burmølle M, Kjelleberg S, Rice SA, Lee KWK, et al. All together now: experimental multispecies biofilm model systems. Environ Microbiol. 2016; 13: 385–92. DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13594
26. Khatoon Z, McTiernan CD, Suuronen EJ, Mah TF, Alarcon EI. Bacterial biofilm formation on implantable devices and approaches to its treatment and prevention. Heliyon. 2018; 4(12):e01067.
27. Crouzet M, Le Senechal C, Brözel VS, Costaglioli P, Barthe C, Bonneu M, et al. Exploring early steps in biofilm formation: set-up of an experimental system for molecular studies. BMC Microbiol. 2014; 14: 253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-014-0253-z
28. Kolenbrander PE, Palmer Jr RJ, Periasamy S, Jakubovics NS. Oral multispecies biofilm development and the key role of cell–cell distance. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2010; 8: 471-80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2381
29. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS, Egland PG, Foster JS, Palmer RJJ. Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2002; 66(3): 486-505. DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.66.3.486-505.2002
30. Weerasekera MM, Jayarathna TA, Wijesinghe GK, Gunasekara CP, Fernando N, Kottegoda N, et al. The Effect of Nutritive and Non-Nutritive Sweeteners on the Growth, Adhesion, and Biofilm Formation of Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis. Med Princ Pract. 2017; 26: 554–60. DOI: 10.1159/000484718
31. Jamal M, Ahmad W, Andleeb S, Jalil F, Imran M, Nawaz MA, et al. Bacterial biofilm and associated infections. Journal of the Chinese Medical Association. 2018; 81(1): 7–11.
32. Drenkard E. Antimicrobial resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Microbes Infect. 2003; 5: 1213–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2003.08.009
33. Al‐Fattani MA, Douglas LJ. Biofilm matrix of Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis: chemical composition and role in drug resistance. J Med Microbiol. 2006; 55: 999–1008.
34. Pierce CG, Uppuluri P, Tristan AR, Wormley FL, Mowat E, Ramage G, et al. A simple and reproducible 96 well plate-based method for the formation of fungal biofilms and its application to antifungal susceptibility testing. Nat Protoc. 2008; 3(9): 1494–500. DOI: 10.1038/nport.2008.141
35. Soukos NS, Goodson JM. Photodynamic therapy in the control of oral biofilms. Periodontology 2000. 2011; 55: 143–66.
36. Khan SMA, Malik A, Ahmad I. Anti-candidal activity of essential oils alone and in combination with amphotericin B or fluconazole against multi-drug resistant isolates of Candida albicans. Medical Mycology. 2012; 50: 33–42. DOI: 10.3109/13693786.2011.582890
37. Nir Y, Potasman I, Stermer E, Tabak M, Neeman I. Controlled trial of the effect of cinnamon extract on Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter. 2000; 5: 94–7.
38. Azzouz MA, Bullerman LB. Comparative antimycotic effects of selected herbs, spices, plant components and commercial antifungal agents. Journal of Food Protection. 1982; 45: 1298 – 1301. DOI: 10.4315/0362-028X-45.14.1298
39. Suksrikarm B, 1987. Herb and Spice. Amorn Printing, Thailand.
40. Zainal-Abidin Z, Mohd-Said S, Abdul Majid FA, Majid A, Mustapha WAW, Jantan I. Anti-Bacterial Activity of Cinnamon Oil on Oral Pathogens. The Open Conference Proceedings Journal. 2013; 42(4): 12-16.
41. Wiwattanarattanabut K, Choonharuangdej S, Srithavaj T. In vitro anti-cariogenic plaque effects of essential oils extracted from culinary herbs. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 2017; 11: 30–35.
42. Filoche SK, Soma K, Sissons CH. Antimicrobial effects of essential oils in combination with chlorhexidine digluconate. Oral Microbiology and Immunology. 2005; 20(4): 221–5. DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-302X.2005.00216.x
43. Moon SE, Kim HY, Cha JD. Synergistic effect between clove oil and its major compounds and antibiotics against oral bacteria. Arch Oral Biol. 2011; 56:907–16.
44. Schmidt E, Jirovetz L, Wlcek K, Buchbauer G, Gochev V, Girova T, et al. Antifungal Activity of Eugenol and Various Eugenol-Containing Essential Oils against 38 Clinical Isolates of Candida albicans. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants. 2007; 10(5), 421–429. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2007.10643575
45. Marchese A, Barbieri R, Coppo E, Orhan IE, Daglia M, Nabavi SF, et al. Antimicrobial activity of eugenol and essential oils containing eugenol: A mechanistic viewpoint. Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 2017; 43(6), 668–689. DOI: 10.1080/1040841X.2017.1295225
46. Ong KS, Cheow YL, Lee SM. The role of reactive oxygen species in the antimicrobial activity of pyochelin. J Adv Res. 2017; 8(4):393-398. DOI:10.1016/j.jare.2017.05.007
47. Unlu M, Ergene E, Unlu GV, Zeytinoglu HS, Vural N. Composition, antimicrobial activity and in vitro cytotoxicity of essential oil from Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (Lauraceae). Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2010; 48(11): 3274–80. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.09.001
48. Singh R, Koppikar SJ, Paul P, Gilda S, Paradkar AR, Ghanekar RK. Comparative analysis of cytotoxic effect of aqueous cinnamon extract from Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark with commercial cinnamaldehyde on various cell lines. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2009; 47(12): 1174–9.
49. El-Meleigy MA, Ahmed ME, Arafa RA, Ebrahim NA, El-Kholany EE. Cytotoxicity Of Four Essential Oils On Some Human And Bacterial Cells. Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation. 2010; 5(2): 143-59.
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